December 30th, 2009 Posted in Recent Articles | No Comments »
This prehistoric nation came together into the solid empire that it started as when the Upper and Lower Egypt were politically unified under the very first Pharaoh at about 3150 BC. The commencement of this nation progressed over the following 3 millennia, a dawn that saw the creation of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egypt was a civilisation that existed in the eastern region of North Africa with settlements condensing along the lower shores of the River Nile; a region that is today’s modern country of Egypt.
Ancient Egypt was a reasonably successful nation despite its location in the desert region; and this success was to some extent owed to its ability to adapt to the River Nile Valley conditions. The ancient Egyptians had become acquainted with the flooding of the valley and could hence predict floods. They developed elaborate irrigation methods which were established in the fertile river valley, enabling them to produce surplus crops. This innovativeness in turn boosted the social development and culture of ancient Egypt as a nation.
The governing authority was even able to exploit mineral resources of the River Nile valley and surrounding desert regions thanks to the availability of extra funds from the agricultural practices. Alongside their agricultural projects, construction projects were also initiated. Consequently, extensive trade was established between Egypt and its neighbours. It was only in order for Egypt to institute a regimented military force to defend their territory against invaders and defeat foreign enemies. These incentive Egyptians also developed in the early stages, an independent writing system which was recognised and used by the citizens.
Credit for all these progressions and developments would go to the bureaucracy of religious leaders, scribes, and administrators all under the authority of a Pharaoh. The Pharaoh co-ordinated and controlled the collaboration and cohesiveness of these bodies as well as that of the people of ancient Egypt. The protocol followed was as per the laid down rules and regulations of an elaborate system of religious beliefs. This structured control, centralised governance, excellent co-ordination, and ingenious innovation asserted ancient Egypt’s supremacy. The history of ancient Egypt transpired in a succession of 8 Kingdoms which were relatively stable phases; and these kingdoms were separated by periods of comparative instability which were the 3 Intermediate Periods. The kingdoms and intermediate periods occurred in the following chronology: Predynastic Period; Early Dynastic Period; Old Kingdom; First Intermediate Period; Middle Kingdom; Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos; New Kingdom; Third Intermediate Period; Late Period; Ptolemaic Dynasty; and finally the Roman ascendancy.
As it was in the Predynastic and Early Dynastic ages, the climate of Egypt was far much less arid and scorched than it is today with vast expanses being covered in treed savannah that was grazed by herds of ungulates. In abundance was foliage and fauna all over the region with water fowls existing in large populations around the Nile. The Predynastic period was in about 5500 BC, with groups of small tribes. The existent early cultures were the Badari culture (animal husbandry, pottery, ceramic works, stone tools, copper use); and the Naqada culture (works of obsidian and flakes, painted pottery, decorative stone works, cosmetic palette, jewellery, faïence—ceramic glaze, written symbology). In the 3rd century BC was the Early Dynastic era in which Manetho (an Egyptian priest) classified the Pharaohs from Menes into 30 dynasties, commencing with a king called ‘Meni’, believed to have united the Upper and Lower Egyptian kingdoms. The very first of the dynastic Pharaohs, in 3150 BC, congealed control over lower Egypt established a capital at Memphis. He controlled agriculture, labour, and trade routes. Once deceased, the idolized Pharaohs were celebrated by placement in ‘mastaba’ tombs and Abydos mortuary cult structures.
Dramatic developments in art, architecture, technology, and improved agricultural productivity marked the Old Kingdom era. The vizier managed tax collection by state officials; coordinated irrigation; employed peasants as constructors in projects; and set up a justice system for the maintenance of peace, law, and order. However, feudal practices that entailed using resources and funding activities in the name of sustaining the honour and worship of the Pharaoh gradually eroded the Pharaohs economic power. Eventually the Pharaoh was overwhelmed by the large centralised system that he could no longer afford to support; thus his power diminished. ‘Nomarchs’ made an uprising aimed at challenging the authority of the Pharaoh. That, in addition to sever droughts led the nation into 140 years of famine and contention, otherwise known as the First Intermediate period.
The First Intermediate period was characterised by economic instability; lost confidence in the king even by his subordinates; food shortages, political rows, and minor civil wars. All in all, the local governors and leaders with no obligation to the Pharaoh re-established flourishing civilisations in their provinces; in turn the provinces grew to being economically prosperous. Eventually the local governors were in competition with one another for territorial authority with various clans falling into contention over control. In the Middle Kingdom, Egypt’s stability and affluence was reinstated: there was a renaissance of art, literature and colossal construction projects. Land reclamation and irrigation projects were reinforced to boost agricultural produce. The military made their mark by subjugating the Nubian territory which was abundant in gold mines and quarries. The ‘Walls-of-the-Ruler’, a defensive edifice was put up by labourers in the eastern Delta to ward off foreign invasion and attack.
Asiatic settlers were permitted into the delta region to provide labour for the many mining and construction campaigns established by the king; they lived in the eastern Delta town of Avaris. The ruin of this kingdom’s achievements came as a result of its last ruler’s over-ambitious activities which, coupled with the deficient Nile floods, strained the economy. As a result of this economic slump, the alien Asiatic settlers led their own insurgence for control of the delta region; and they seized power as the ‘Hyksos’ (‘foreign rulers’). Following was a gradual degeneration into the Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos.
The Second Intermediate Period took place at about 1650 BC. The central authority was shifted to Thebes, a feat that saw the Pharaoh treated as a vassal and was expected to pay tribute. Characteristic of the Hyksos’ rule was models of government imitated from the Egyptians, the Hyksos therefore depicted themselves as Pharaohs. This transitional period came to an end after a series of conflicts. The success of the subsequent New Kingdom was ensured by safeguarding of the borders by this kingdom’s Pharaohs. Diplomatic ties with the neighbours were strengthened. These factors led to the unparalleled prosperity of Egypt in this new kingdom. The Pharaohs of this era embarked on an extensive building campaign in honour and exultation of Amun the god. Also typical of this kingdom was Pharaohs constructing monumental structures to venerate their accomplishments.
Ramesses the Great, the Pharaoh who fathered more children than any other Pharaoh in history, ascended to the throne in this era. The first peace treaty to be ever recorded in history was agreed on in this kingdom’s time as a result of the Battle of Kadesh between Ramesses II’s army and the Hittites. That was some time in 1258 BC.
The wealth that Egypt boasted was a persuading target for foreign attacks. Particular enemies were the Sea Peoples as well as the Libyans. At first, the Egyptian military was capable of curbing and staving off these attacks; though they later lost control of Palestine and Syria. The key issues that promoted the downfall of this kingdom were the external invasions, as well Egypt’s own accelerated levels of corruption, civil unrest and tomb robbery. The high priests amassed extensive tracts of land and wealth for their own selfish gains, and their mushrooming power stumbled Egypt into the Third Intermediate period.
Persistent and rapid encroachment of the Libyans into Egyptian territory, coupled with their capture of control over Egypt, distinguished the Third Intermediate period. The Libyan authority was overthrown by a Kushite revolution that then took over control over the region. Egypt’s foreign allies too had been subjugated under Assyrian rule and influence, while Egypt’s influential stature had wavered and deteriorated significantly. The Assyrians did not spare the Kushites control over Egypt and succeeded in overthrowing them and pushing them back into Nubia. In the Late Period, the Saite kings succeeded the Assyrians in reigning over Egypt. Greek mercenaries were recruited into Egypt’s defensive force as its first navy. The Greeks greatly occupied the delta city of Naukratis as their home. The Persian conquest of Egypt took place at about 525 BC in what was called the Battle of Pelusium, and they captured the pharaoh. Several revolutions were staged against the powerful Persians but none successful in entirely overthrowing them. Egypt was merged with Phoenicia and Cyprus under the Persian reign. Mazaces, the Persian ruler, gave up Egypt to Alexander the Great in 332 BC.
The Ptolemaic Period bore great relief for the Egyptians who rendered the then ruler, Alexander the Great, as their ‘deliverer’. The Ptolemies, who were Alexander’s successors, instituted an administrative system based on an Egyptian standard with Alexandria being the new capital city. Alexandria became a platform that exhibited the power and prestige of Greek rule. It became the centre for learning (like the renown Library of Alexandria); trade (like the Lighthouse of Alexandria which lit up ship routes engaging in trade); and culture. The Ptolemies, in a bid to ensure the loyalty of the population, supported the Egyptian traditions. As a result, the Egyptian culture was neither displaced nor superseded by the Greek culture. As a matter of fact, some cultures were merged and good examples would be the marrying of Egyptian and Greek gods into composite gods like Serapis; influence of Greek sculptural forms in traditional Egyptian motifs. Yet despite the Ptolemies’ endeavours to pacify the Egyptians, the Greek rule was challenged by native insurgence. The Romans also bore vested interest in the political situation of Egypt as a result of the trade relationship shared in grain exports into Egypt. Therefore, these Roman political ambitions, coupled with Egyptian rebellions and powerful Syrian opponents destabilised the Greek authority. Eventually, the Romans acquired Egypt as a province of its empire with the help of its militant forces.
Following was the Roman domination period which started in 30 BC after the ousting of Marc Antony and the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian who later became Emperor. The govern of Pharaohs was thus officially ceased in 31 BC; an undoing that came after the Battle of Actium.
The Romans may have been more hostile than the Ptolemies towards the Egyptians, but traditions like the worship of traditional gods and mummification flourished; some Roman emperors even portrayed themselves as Pharaohs to some extent. The administration of the nation was maintained in the Roman mode and exclusive to the Egyptians. Christianity gained ground in Alexandria as from the mid 1st century AD. It posed a threat to popular religious traditions as it sought to win over converts from the pagans. Persecution of converts to Christianity was in suit, culminating in the great Diocletian flushes which commenced in 303 AD. However, Christianity emerged the victor, and in 391 AD Theodosius the Christian Emperor introduced a law banning closed temples and pagan rituals. Alexandria was then hounded by constant scenes of raging anti-pagan riots with destruction of private and public images of religion. As a result, Egypt’s culture of paganism was constantly of the decline. The function of Egyptian priests and priestesses gradually faded away together with the ability to read hieroglyphic writings. Even the Egyptian temples were either converted into churches are abandoned altogether. What remained unaffected must have been that the natives continued to speak in their native language, which was a generally northern Afro-Asiatic language – related to the Berber and Semitic languages.
Ancient Egypt boasts a long colourful list of accomplishments including but not limited to: quarrying, surveying and construction, a mathematical system, a functional and efficient medical system, agricultural production techniques, irrigation systems, the earliest known ships, glass technology, new literature forms, Egyptian faïence and the very first ever known peace treaty. Synonymous with Egyptians is their hieroglyphic writing, a composition of some 500 symbols, which goes back into 3200 BC. Hieroglyphs either represented words, sounds, or a silent determinative; its complexity being in the fact that the same symbol could serve different purposes depending on the context used; they could also be read either in columns or rows in either direction (usually from right to left). Hieroglyphs could be imprinted on stones and tombs and were a formal script. On the other hand was a cursive form of writing used by scribes called hieratic. Hieratic, which was an easier and quicker form of writing, was at all times written from right to left and in horizontal rows. Demotic, another form of writing, became the predominant form of writing; and together with formal hieroglyphs, supplement the Greek text inscribed on the Rosetta Stone. By the 1st century AD, the Coptic alphabet had started being used together with Demotic writing. The ancient Egyptians also highly appreciated literature and have under their cap numerous pieces of literature.
The ancient Egyptians were prominent for their burial customs. They held utmost significance for these customs with the faith that carrying them out ensured immortality after death (perpetual life after death). The burial customs entailed mummification of the bodies to preserve them, burial ceremonies, burying along with the bodies the goods to be used by the deceased in the afterlife. Other practices were such as desiccation or preserving of some body parts in canopic jars.
With such an enviable and irrevocable legacy set out by Egypt, it would not be a wonder at just how much its creative art, and intricate architecture were extensively copied. Ancient Egypt’s relics and artefacts were carried away to distant lands and far corners of the world. Its epic ruins have for many centuries inspired and conceptualised the imaginations of writers and travellers. So much was the curiosity and interest vested in this ancient nation and all its bearings that even scientific research and analysis into the Egyptian civilisation was initiated.
This prehistoric nation came together into the solid empire that it started as when the Upper and Lower Egypt were politically unified under the very first Pharaoh at about 3150 BC. The commencement of this nation progressed over the following 3 millennia, a dawn that saw the creation of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egypt was a civilisation that existed in the eastern region of North Africa with settlements condensing along the lower shores of the River Nile; a region that is today’s modern country of Egypt.
Ancient Egypt was a reasonably successful nation despite its location in the desert region; and this success was to some extent owed to its ability to adapt to the River Nile Valley conditions. The ancient Egyptians had become acquainted with the flooding of the valley and could hence predict floods. They developed elaborate irrigation methods which were established in the fertile river valley, enabling them to produce surplus crops. This innovativeness in turn boosted the social development and culture of ancient Egypt as a nation.
The governing authority was even able to exploit mineral resources of the River Nile valley and surrounding desert regions thanks to the availability of extra funds from the agricultural practices. Alongside their agricultural projects, construction projects were also initiated. Consequently, extensive trade was established between Egypt and its neighbours. It was only in order for Egypt to institute a regimented military force to defend their territory against invaders and defeat foreign enemies. These incentive Egyptians also developed in the early stages, an independent writing system which was recognised and used by the citizens.
Credit for all these progressions and developments would go to the bureaucracy of religious leaders, scribes, and administrators all under the authority of a Pharaoh. The Pharaoh co-ordinated and controlled the collaboration and cohesiveness of these bodies as well as that of the people of ancient Egypt. The protocol followed was as per the laid down rules and regulations of an elaborate system of religious beliefs. This structured control, centralised governance, excellent co-ordination, and ingenious innovation asserted ancient Egypt’s supremacy. The history of ancient Egypt transpired in a succession of 8 Kingdoms which were relatively stable phases; and these kingdoms were separated by periods of comparative instability which were the 3 Intermediate Periods. The kingdoms and intermediate periods occurred in the following chronology: Predynastic Period; Early Dynastic Period; Old Kingdom; First Intermediate Period; Middle Kingdom; Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos; New Kingdom; Third Intermediate Period; Late Period; Ptolemaic Dynasty; and finally the Roman ascendancy.
As it was in the Predynastic and Early Dynastic ages, the climate of Egypt was far much less arid and scorched than it is today with vast expanses being covered in treed savannah that was grazed by herds of ungulates. In abundance was foliage and fauna all over the region with water fowls existing in large populations around the Nile. The Predynastic period was in about 5500 BC, with groups of small tribes. The existent early cultures were the Badari culture (animal husbandry, pottery, ceramic works, stone tools, copper use); and the Naqada culture (works of obsidian and flakes, painted pottery, decorative stone works, cosmetic palette, jewellery, faïence—ceramic glaze, written symbology). In the 3rd century BC was the Early Dynastic era in which Manetho (an Egyptian priest) classified the Pharaohs from Menes into 30 dynasties, commencing with a king called ‘Meni’, believed to have united the Upper and Lower Egyptian kingdoms. The very first of the dynastic Pharaohs, in 3150 BC, congealed control over lower Egypt established a capital at Memphis. He controlled agriculture, labour, and trade routes. Once deceased, the idolized Pharaohs were celebrated by placement in ‘mastaba’ tombs and Abydos mortuary cult structures.
Dramatic developments in art, architecture, technology, and improved agricultural productivity marked the Old Kingdom era. The vizier managed tax collection by state officials; coordinated irrigation; employed peasants as constructors in projects; and set up a justice system for the maintenance of peace, law, and order. However, feudal practices that entailed using resources and funding activities in the name of sustaining the honour and worship of the Pharaoh gradually eroded the Pharaohs economic power. Eventually the Pharaoh was overwhelmed by the large centralised system that he could no longer afford to support; thus his power diminished. ‘Nomarchs’ made an uprising aimed at challenging the authority of the Pharaoh. That, in addition to sever droughts led the nation into 140 years of famine and contention, otherwise known as the First Intermediate period.
The First Intermediate period was characterised by economic instability; lost confidence in the king even by his subordinates; food shortages, political rows, and minor civil wars. All in all, the local governors and leaders with no obligation to the Pharaoh re-established flourishing civilisations in their provinces; in turn the provinces grew to being economically prosperous. Eventually the local governors were in competition with one another for territorial authority with various clans falling into contention over control. In the Middle Kingdom, Egypt’s stability and affluence was reinstated: there was a renaissance of art, literature and colossal construction projects. Land reclamation and irrigation projects were reinforced to boost agricultural produce. The military made their mark by subjugating the Nubian territory which was abundant in gold mines and quarries. The ‘Walls-of-the-Ruler’, a defensive edifice was put up by labourers in the eastern Delta to ward off foreign invasion and attack.
Asiatic settlers were permitted into the delta region to provide labour for the many mining and construction campaigns established by the king; they lived in the eastern Delta town of Avaris. The ruin of this kingdom’s achievements came as a result of its last ruler’s over-ambitious activities which, coupled with the deficient Nile floods, strained the economy. As a result of this economic slump, the alien Asiatic settlers led their own insurgence for control of the delta region; and they seized power as the ‘Hyksos’ (‘foreign rulers’). Following was a gradual degeneration into the Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos.
The Second Intermediate Period took place at about 1650 BC. The central authority was shifted to Thebes, a feat that saw the Pharaoh treated as a vassal and was expected to pay tribute. Characteristic of the Hyksos’ rule was models of government imitated from the Egyptians, the Hyksos therefore depicted themselves as Pharaohs. This transitional period came to an end after a series of conflicts. The success of the subsequent New Kingdom was ensured by safeguarding of the borders by this kingdom’s Pharaohs. Diplomatic ties with the neighbours were strengthened. These factors led to the unparalleled prosperity of Egypt in this new kingdom. The Pharaohs of this era embarked on an extensive building campaign in honour and exultation of Amun the god. Also typical of this kingdom was Pharaohs constructing monumental structures to venerate their accomplishments.
Ramesses the Great, the Pharaoh who fathered more children than any other Pharaoh in history, ascended to the throne in this era. The first peace treaty to be ever recorded in history was agreed on in this kingdom’s time as a result of the Battle of Kadesh between Ramesses II’s army and the Hittites. That was some time in 1258 BC.
The wealth that Egypt boasted was a persuading target for foreign attacks. Particular enemies were the Sea Peoples as well as the Libyans. At first, the Egyptian military was capable of curbing and staving off these attacks; though they later lost control of Palestine and Syria. The key issues that promoted the downfall of this kingdom were the external invasions, as well Egypt’s own accelerated levels of corruption, civil unrest and tomb robbery. The high priests amassed extensive tracts of land and wealth for their own selfish gains, and their mushrooming power stumbled Egypt into the Third Intermediate period.
Persistent and rapid encroachment of the Libyans into Egyptian territory, coupled with their capture of control over Egypt, distinguished the Third Intermediate period. The Libyan authority was overthrown by a Kushite revolution that then took over control over the region. Egypt’s foreign allies too had been subjugated under Assyrian rule and influence, while Egypt’s influential stature had wavered and deteriorated significantly. The Assyrians did not spare the Kushites control over Egypt and succeeded in overthrowing them and pushing them back into Nubia. In the Late Period, the Saite kings succeeded the Assyrians in reigning over Egypt. Greek mercenaries were recruited into Egypt’s defensive force as its first navy. The Greeks greatly occupied the delta city of Naukratis as their home. The Persian conquest of Egypt took place at about 525 BC in what was called the Battle of Pelusium, and they captured the pharaoh. Several revolutions were staged against the powerful Persians but none successful in entirely overthrowing them. Egypt was merged with Phoenicia and Cyprus under the Persian reign. Mazaces, the Persian ruler, gave up Egypt to Alexander the Great in 332 BC.
The Ptolemaic Period bore great relief for the Egyptians who rendered the then ruler, Alexander the Great, as their ‘deliverer’. The Ptolemies, who were Alexander’s successors, instituted an administrative system based on an Egyptian standard with Alexandria being the new capital city. Alexandria became a platform that exhibited the power and prestige of Greek rule. It became the centre for learning (like the renown Library of Alexandria); trade (like the Lighthouse of Alexandria which lit up ship routes engaging in trade); and culture. The Ptolemies, in a bid to ensure the loyalty of the population, supported the Egyptian traditions. As a result, the Egyptian culture was neither displaced nor superseded by the Greek culture. As a matter of fact, some cultures were merged and good examples would be the marrying of Egyptian and Greek gods into composite gods like Serapis; influence of Greek sculptural forms in traditional Egyptian motifs. Yet despite the Ptolemies’ endeavours to pacify the Egyptians, the Greek rule was challenged by native insurgence. The Romans also bore vested interest in the political situation of Egypt as a result of the trade relationship shared in grain exports into Egypt. Therefore, these Roman political ambitions, coupled with Egyptian rebellions and powerful Syrian opponents destabilised the Greek authority. Eventually, the Romans acquired Egypt as a province of its empire with the help of its militant forces.
Following was the Roman domination period which started in 30 BC after the ousting of Marc Antony and the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian who later became Emperor. The govern of Pharaohs was thus officially ceased in 31 BC; an undoing that came after the Battle of Actium.
The Romans may have been more hostile than the Ptolemies towards the Egyptians, but traditions like the worship of traditional gods and mummification flourished; some Roman emperors even portrayed themselves as Pharaohs to some extent. The administration of the nation was maintained in the Roman mode and exclusive to the Egyptians. Christianity gained ground in Alexandria as from the mid 1st century AD. It posed a threat to popular religious traditions as it sought to win over converts from the pagans. Persecution of converts to Christianity was in suit, culminating in the great Diocletian flushes which commenced in 303 AD. However, Christianity emerged the victor, and in 391 AD Theodosius the Christian Emperor introduced a law banning closed temples and pagan rituals. Alexandria was then hounded by constant scenes of raging anti-pagan riots with destruction of private and public images of religion. As a result, Egypt’s culture of paganism was constantly of the decline. The function of Egyptian priests and priestesses gradually faded away together with the ability to read hieroglyphic writings. Even the Egyptian temples were either converted into churches are abandoned altogether. What remained unaffected must have been that the natives continued to speak in their native language, which was a generally northern Afro-Asiatic language – related to the Berber and Semitic languages.
Ancient Egypt boasts a long colourful list of accomplishments including but not limited to: quarrying, surveying and construction, a mathematical system, a functional and efficient medical system, agricultural production techniques, irrigation systems, the earliest known ships, glass technology, new literature forms, Egyptian faïence and the very first ever known peace treaty. Synonymous with Egyptians is their hieroglyphic writing, a composition of some 500 symbols, which goes back into 3200 BC. Hieroglyphs either represented words, sounds, or a silent determinative; its complexity being in the fact that the same symbol could serve different purposes depending on the context used; they could also be read either in columns or rows in either direction (usually from right to left). Hieroglyphs could be imprinted on stones and tombs and were a formal script. On the other hand was a cursive form of writing used by scribes called hieratic. Hieratic, which was an easier and quicker form of writing, was at all times written from right to left and in horizontal rows. Demotic, another form of writing, became the predominant form of writing; and together with formal hieroglyphs, supplement the Greek text inscribed on the Rosetta Stone. By the 1st century AD, the Coptic alphabet had started being used together with Demotic writing. The ancient Egyptians also highly appreciated literature and have under their cap numerous pieces of literature.
The ancient Egyptians were prominent for their burial customs. They held utmost significance for these customs with the faith that carrying them out ensured immortality after death (perpetual life after death). The burial customs entailed mummification of the bodies to preserve them, burial ceremonies, burying along with the bodies the goods to be used by the deceased in the afterlife. Other practices were such as desiccation or preserving of some body parts in canopic jars.
With such an enviable and irrevocable legacy set out by Egypt, it would not be a wonder at just how much its creative art, and intricate architecture were extensively copied. Ancient Egypt’s relics and artefacts were carried away to distant lands and far corners of the world. Its epic ruins have for many centuries inspired and conceptualised the imaginations of writers and travellers. So much was the curiosity and interest vested in this ancient nation and all its bearings that even scientific research and analysis into the Egyptian civilisation was initiated.